These detailed lesson notes provide an in-depth look at the Schlieffen Plan, its execution, and the significant battles that followed. Each section emphasizes the complexities of early World War I strategies and the unexpected factors that led to a prolonged and devastating conflict.
1. Introduction to the Schlieffen Plan
Background:
- After the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), the German Empire was wary of the threat posed by France and Russia, who had formed the Dual Alliance in 1894.
- Germany feared a two-front war: France to the west and Russia to the east. To counter this, General Alfred von Schlieffen, Chief of the German General Staff from 1891 to 1906, devised a plan to defeat France quickly before turning to fight Russia.
Schlieffen’s Strategy:
- The Schlieffen Plan was rooted in the concept of “Kesselschlacht” (cauldron battle), which aimed to encircle and annihilate enemy forces.
- Schlieffen proposed a massive, sweeping movement through Belgium and northern France, bypassing the heavily fortified Franco-German border. The idea was to encircle Paris from the north and force a French surrender.
- The right wing of the German army, consisting of about 90% of the available forces, would advance through Belgium and Luxembourg. The left wing would be much smaller, serving mainly to hold the German-French border.
- Schlieffen’s last words on the plan were allegedly, “Keep the right wing strong,” emphasizing the importance of overwhelming force on the right flank.
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2. German Advance Through Belgium
Invasion of Belgium:
- On August 2, 1914, Germany issued an ultimatum to Belgium, demanding free passage through the country. Belgium refused, citing its neutrality as guaranteed by the Treaty of London (1839), which was signed by major European powers, including Germany.
- On August 4, 1914, Germany invaded Belgium, violating its neutrality. This action prompted Britain to declare war on Germany the same day, in defense of Belgian neutrality.
Belgian Resistance:
- The German army expected little resistance from the Belgian forces. However, the Belgians, under King Albert I, put up a fierce defense.
- The fortress city of Liège was the first major obstacle. The Germans expected to take Liège quickly, but the Belgian defenders held out from August 5 to August 16, 1914, significantly delaying the German timetable.
- Despite the eventual fall of Liège, the delay gave time for the British and French to mobilize their forces.
Atrocities in Belgium:
- As German forces moved through Belgium, they encountered guerilla resistance, leading to harsh reprisals against civilians. Towns such as Dinant and Louvain were burned, and civilians were executed in what became known as the “Rape of Belgium.”
- These actions turned global public opinion against Germany and were used as propaganda by the Allies to depict the German army as barbaric.
3. Impact of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF)
Arrival of the BEF:
- The British Expeditionary Force (BEF), consisting of around 100,000 highly trained soldiers, was dispatched to France in early August 1914.
- The BEF, under the command of Sir John French, landed in France and moved to the Belgian border to assist the French and Belgian armies.
Battle of Mons (August 23, 1914):
- The BEF first engaged German forces at the Battle of Mons on August 23, 1914. The British soldiers were outnumbered by the German First Army, led by General Alexander von Kluck.
- Despite their numerical inferiority, the BEF inflicted heavy casualties on the Germans, thanks to their superior marksmanship, with the Lee-Enfield rifles allowing for rapid and accurate fire.
- The Germans were surprised by the effectiveness of the BEF, which they had underestimated. However, the BEF was eventually forced to retreat due to overwhelming German numbers.
The Great Retreat:
- After Mons, the BEF, alongside French forces, began a long retreat southward, covering over 200 miles in two weeks.
- This retreat was marked by rearguard actions that continued to harass the German advance, delaying their progress and stretching their supply lines.
4. Effect of Russian Mobilization on the Western Front
German Assumptions:
- The Schlieffen Plan was based on the assumption that Russia, with its vast size and poor infrastructure, would take at least six weeks to fully mobilize its forces.
- This time window was deemed sufficient for Germany to defeat France before turning east to deal with Russia.
Russian Mobilization:
- Contrary to German expectations, Russia mobilized much faster than anticipated. By mid-August 1914, Russian forces had already begun advancing into East Prussia, threatening German territory.
- The Russian First and Second Armies launched an offensive into East Prussia, catching Germany off guard.
German Response:
- The German High Command, under Helmuth von Moltke the Younger, was forced to divert two army corps and one cavalry division from the Western Front to the Eastern Front to confront the Russian threat.
- This weakening of the German right wing on the Western Front contributed to the eventual failure of the Schlieffen Plan, as the German forces were no longer strong enough to achieve a decisive breakthrough in France.
5. Key Battles and the Stalemate
Battle of Mons (August 23, 1914):
- Detailed earlier, this battle marked the BEF’s first major engagement and contributed to delaying the German advance. The BEF’s orderly retreat allowed them to avoid encirclement and destruction.
Battle of the Marne (September 6-12, 1914):
- As the German forces approached Paris, the French, under General Joseph Joffre, planned a counter-offensive.
- Joffre, with the assistance of General Michel Maunoury, planned to exploit a gap that had developed between the German First and Second Armies. The gap was a result of the exhaustion and overextension of the German right wing.
- The French and BEF launched their counter-offensive on September 6, attacking the German right flank. General von Kluck’s First Army was forced to turn and fight, leaving the Schlieffen Plan in disarray.
- In a famous incident, Parisian taxicabs were used to transport French reserves to the front, symbolizing the desperate nature of the battle.
- The German forces were pushed back across the Marne River, and by September 12, they began a general retreat to the Aisne River, abandoning the plan to encircle Paris.
The Race to the Sea (September – October 1914):
- After the Battle of the Marne, both sides attempted to outflank each other to the north in what became known as the “Race to the Sea.”
- This series of maneuvers was an attempt by both the Germans and the Allies to gain control of the Channel ports, which were vital for resupply and reinforcement.
- The “Race to the Sea” ended in stalemate, with both sides digging in and establishing a continuous trench line that stretched from the Swiss border to the North Sea.
First Battle of Ypres (October 19 – November 22, 1914):
- The First Battle of Ypres was the last major battle of 1914 and part of the “Race to the Sea.”
- Ypres, a strategic town in Belgium, was fiercely contested as both sides sought to secure it.
- The battle was characterized by heavy casualties and the introduction of trench warfare, which would come to define the Western Front.
- The Germans launched several attacks but were unable to break through the Allied lines. By the end of November, the battle had solidified the deadlock that would last for the next four years.
6. Conclusion: The Failure of the Schlieffen Plan
Analysis of Failure:
- The Schlieffen Plan failed due to a combination of factors: underestimation of Belgian resistance, the unexpected effectiveness of the BEF, the rapid Russian mobilization, and the logistical challenges of executing such a complex maneuver.
- Moltke’s decision to weaken the right wing by transferring troops to the Eastern Front was a critical error that compromised the plan’s success.
- The failure of the Schlieffen Plan led to a protracted war of attrition on the Western Front, with both sides digging in and creating a stalemate that would last until 1918.
Long-Term Impact:
- The stalemate on the Western Front led to the development of trench warfare, with both sides constructing extensive trench systems that would dominate the conflict.
- The war, initially expected to be over by Christmas 1914, dragged on for four more years, leading to massive casualties and widespread devastation across Europe.
- The failure of the Schlieffen Plan marked the beginning of a new kind of warfare, characterized by industrial-scale slaughter and the need for new strategies and technologies to break the deadlock.